Acknowledgments vii
Forward ix
Abbreviations xvii
Chapter 1 19
Introduction 19
The Background to PFM in Bangladesh 20
PF for Poverty Reduction and Participation 22
The CHT People and their Livelihood 24
Research Problem 25
Research Objectives 28
Structure of the book 28
Limitations of the Study 31
Chapter 2 33
Forests and People in Bangladesh Forest Management 33
Introduction 33
An Overview of Forests in Bangladesh with Special Reference to CHT 34
The history of forest management in the CHT region 35
Pre-colonial Era: Pre-Mughal Era 36
Pre-colonial Era: Mughal Era 40
Colonial Era: East India Company 41
Colonial Era: British Government 46
Post-colonial Era: Pre-independence (Pakistan Era) 56
Post-colonial Era: Post-independence (Bangladesh Era) 59
Forest policies in Bangladesh: A historical synthesis 61
British Colonial Policy 62
Forest Policy, 1894 63
Forest Policy, 1955 64
Forest Policy, 1962 65
National Forest Policy, 1979 67
National Forest Policy, 1994 68
Forest acts, rules and regulations 70
The major forest types 71
Hill Forests 72
In-land Sal Forests 72
Tidal Mangrove Forests 72
Forest Cover and Status 73
The CHT People 75
Ethnic communities 76
Ethnic origin 76
Group identification features 77
The CHT case in particular 79
Population 79
Religions of the CHT people 81
Ethnicity, Cultivation and Economy 82
Traditional Agricultural Practices: Jhuming 84
Languages 87
Conclusions 87
Chapter 3 91
The Currency of Participatory Forestry 91
Introduction 91
Concepts and Nature of PF 92
Land and Tree Tenure 96
The Role of Forestry Organizations and Policy 98
The Role of Local Organizations 99
Social Relations and Power Structure 101
Market Opportunities 103
Role of Donor Agencies 104
Global Focus 105
Regional Factors 107
Bangladesh Perspectives 108
PF activities in Bangladesh 110
Betagi-Pomora Community Forestry Project 110
Forest Extension Service Scheme 111
Community Forestry Project 111
Upazila Afforestation and Nursery Development Project 112
Forestry Master Plan 113
Forest Resource Management Project 114
Coastal Greenbelt Project (1995-2002) 114
Forestry Sector Project (1998-2004) 114
NGO Interventions in Social Forestry 115
Studies on People’s Participation in Bangladesh 117
Selected major PF programmes in CHT 123
Farming System Research and Development (FSRD) Programme 123
Integrated Afforestation and Jhumia Rehabilitation in the
Unclassified State Forests of CHT 125
Afforestation and Settlement in the Unclassed State Forests of
CHT (2nd Phase) 129
Afforestation and Rehabilitation of Jhumia Families in the
USF and Reserved Forest Land of CHT (3rd Phase) 132
Forestry Sector Project 135
Upland Settlement Project (Phase 1) 137
Upland Settlement Project (Phase 2) 140
Village Common Forest (VCF) Project 141
Horticulture Development Project 143
Sustainable Hill Cultivation Programme 146
Conclusion 148
Chapter 4 151
The Research Design and Methodology 151
Introduction 151
Framework of the Study 152
Methodological Aspects 155
Study Phases 156
Phase I 157
Study Projects, Locations and Villages 157
Phase II 165
Techniques and Tools of Data Collection 166
Phase III 175
Strategies for Data Processing and Analysis 175
Chapter 5 177
Empirical Analyses, Observations and Discussion 177
Introduction 177
General Issues 177
Participants’ gender, ethnicity and religion 178
Participant age, family size and education 180
Land tenure status 183
Land use 184
Discussion of general issues 187
Income Generation 188
Income of the participants 188
Income Variations among Organizations 192
Relationship Characteristics among the Organizations 193
Level of Farm Income 196
Farm income components 197
Organization-wise Variations in Farm Income Components 198
Farm Income Component Levels 199
Relationships among the Farm Income Components 201
Forestry income 203
Organization-wise Variation in Forest Income Components 204
Forest Income Component Levels 205
Relationships between Forest Income Components 207
Participants’ comments regarding economic upliftment 209
Discussions about income generation 210
Expenditure Patterns 212
Expenditure patterns of the participants 212
Organization-wise Variations in Expenditure 213
Expenditure Component Levels 215
Relationships among the Income and Expenditure Components 215
Farm expenditure components 215
Organization-wise Variation among the Farm
Expenditure Components 223
Farm Expenditure Component Levels 224
Relationships among Farm Expenditure Components 227
Forestry expenditure components 229
Organization-wise Variations among Forestry
Expenditure Components 230
Forestry Expenditure Component Levels 231
Relationships among Forestry Expenditure Components 232
Social expenditure 235
Organization-wise Variation among Social
Expenditure Components 235
Relationships among Social Expenditure Components 236
Discussion about expenditure patterns 239
Participation 244
Opportunity indicators 244
Decentralization 244
Linkages 245
Flexibility 246
Incentives 246
Prevalence indicators 247
Decision Making and Implementation 247
Monitoring and Evaluation 249
Benefit Sharing 250
PF Achievements 251
Economic welfare 251
Income, Employment and Associated Opportunities 251
Environmental Sustainability 252
Social development 255
Human Capital Development 255
Social Capital and Inclusion 256
Good governance 358
Participation and Involvement 258
Observance of Contracts and Agreements 259
Administration, Technical Design, Extension
Services & Bureaucracy 260
Election of Leadership 261
Chapter 6 263
Summary, Implications, and Clues on Improvement 263
Introduction 263
General and Crosscutting Issues 264
Gender Balance in Participant Selection 264
Community Consideration in Participant Selection 265
Religious Harmony 266
Participant Age Criteria 267
Family Size 267
Expanding PF Practices in High Hills 268
Land Tenure 268
GO and NGO Linkages 270
Inter-sectoral Coordination 270
Economic Upliftment 271
Income of the Respondents 271
Land and Farming Intensity 271
Farming Income 273
Forestry Income 273
Income from Bamboo 274
Agriculture and Livestock Income 275
Farming Components 275
Off-farm Income 275
Expenditures of the Respondents 276
Farm Expenditure 277
Forestry Expenditure 278
Social Expenditure 279
Participation 280
Decentralization 281
Linkages 281
Flexibility 281
Incentives 281
Decision Making 281
Monitoring and Evaluation 282
Benefit Sharing 282
PF Achievements 282
Economic Welfare 283
Social Upliftment 284
Good Governance 284
Summary and Conclusions 285
Major Observations and Findings 287
Key Recommendations 292
Chapter 7 299
Recapitulation and Epilogue 299
Bibliography 305
Index 33
